Dietary Supplements, Nutraceuticals, and Functional FoodsFeaturedFoods and Ingredients

Food and its Use: Flax seeds

by Juliana Fox
by Juliana Fox

Scientific name: Linum usitatissimum1

Other common names: Linseed1

Description: 
Flax seeds, also commonly called linseeds, are edible oilseeds derived from the flax plant, which is a flowering plant with blue flowers.2 An extremely adaptable ingredient that can be consumed in a variety of ways – as whole seeds, ground powder, pressed oil, flour, or convenient tablets and capsules3 – flax seeds have recently gained popularity in the world of health foods. However, flax seeds have a long history of recognition for their medicinal and health value; as early as 3000 BC, flax seeds were grown and utilized in the Middle Eastern city of Babylon.4 In addition to human consumption of the oil and seeds, flaxseed products have a wide array of other purposes;5 the seeds are used for livestock feed, the fibers of the flaxseed plant are used to create textiles, and the oils have numerous industrial applications including linoleum flooring.6 

As both flax seeds and flaxseed oil have become more popular, the flax plant has been adapted to produce more seeds; flax plants are selected for shorter plant heights, more numerous branches, and higher seed production.2 Varieties of flax plants have also been developed to contain “higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids.”5 

On the blue-flowering flax plant,6 flax seeds are housed within “dry globular capsules.”2 Seeds tend to be 3 to 4 mm long, can vary from brown to golden in color, and are smooth.2 Golden and brown flax seeds have slightly different tastes but are reported to have similar nutritional value.7 Golden flax seeds have a “light, buttery, and slightly sweet flavor,”8 while brown flax seeds have a “much bolder […] toasted taste.”8

Nutrients:

Whole Flaxseed
According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),9 one tablespoon (10.3 g) of whole flax seeds contains:

  • 55 calories
  • 4.35 g fats, including 0.377g saturated fats, 0.776 g monounsaturated fats, and 2.96 g polyunsaturated fats
  • 0 mg cholesterol
  • 2.98 g carbohydrates, including 2.81g dietary fiber and 0.16 g sugar
  • 1.88 g protein

Noteworthy vitamins and minerals in one tablespoon (10.3 g) of whole flax seeds include:

Ground Flax Seeds
According to USDA,9 one tablespoon (7g) of ground flax seeds contains:

  • 37.4 calories
  • 2.95g fats, including 0.256 g saturated fats, 0.527 g monounsaturated fats, and 2.01 g polyunsaturated fats
  • 0 mg cholesterol
  • 2.02 g carbohydrates, including 1.91 g dietary fiber and 0.11 g sugar
  • 1.28 g protein

Noteworthy vitamins and minerals in one tablespoon (7 g) of ground flax seeds include:

Flaxseed Oil
According to USDA,9 one tablespoon (13.6 g) of flaxseed oil contains:

  • 120 calories
  • 13.6 g fats, including 1.22 g saturated fats, 2.5 g monounsaturated fats, and 9.22 g polyunsaturated fats
  • 0 mg cholesterol
  • 0 g carbohydrates
  • 0.015 g protein

Noteworthy vitamins and minerals in one tablespoon (7 g) of ground flax seeds include:

Flax seeds gain much of their popularity from being high in lignans (a type of beneficial plant compounds called polyphenols), antioxidants, fiber, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.3 Flax seeds are considered one of the best available sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA),28 an omega-3 fatty acid with reported cardiovascular benefits, and lignans.4

Geographic origin: 
Flax is native to “the region extending from the eastern Mediterranean to India”5 and is believed to have first been formally cultivated in the Fertile Crescent. While it originates from the Middle East, flax seeds are now grown throughout the world.5 Flax was initially introduced to North America by colonists and was primarily an industrial product.5 The flax plant “grows best in cool climates with long periods of daylight,”5 making it well adapted to mediterranean climates and able to grow in many countries, though the primary global producers5 are currently Kazakhstan, Russia, Canada and China. In the United States, flax is largely grown in North Dakota and Montana5 for the purpose of consumption.6

History of use as medicine: 
Flax has a long history of both medicinal and industrial use across the world.29 Formal mentions of flax in writing can be found in 650 B.C.; the Greek physician Hippocrates – often heralded as the “father of medicine” – prescribed flaxseed for abdominal pains.29 However, it is believed that the Ancient Egyptians9 utilized flax as early as 3000 B.C.,4 both for clothing and as a laxative. Flax seeds contain both fiber and mucilage,30 which add bulk and water to stool and contribute to the seeds’ laxative properties.

Flax played an important role in Asia’s Ayurvedic tradition of medicine, which is practiced in countries such as Sri Lanka and India, and Chinese traditional medicine.3 According to Ayurvedic medicine, consumption of flax can improve the elasticity and pH of the skin, heal wounds, and remove blemishes.29 This was most likely due to flax seeds’ containing essential fatty acids such as linolenic acid and alpha linolenic acid (ALA), which “regulate prostaglandin synthesis and hence induce wound healing.”29 Flax was also frequently used to treat gastrointestinal diseases.29

In the Middle Ages, European medicine prescribed the oil from flax seeds to treat kidney disorders, general pain, tumors, coughs, nail disorders, and inflammation.29 By the eighth century, Emperor Charlemagne of the Roman Empire required his subjects to consume flax due to his strong belief in its health benefits.31 

While flax seeds currently tend to be consumed in whole, powdered, or oil form, flaxseed tea29 has been cited as an additional popular preparation throughout history.

Current Uses and Scientific Literature Review: 
As people have become more interested in healthy eating and nutrition, flax seeds have taken center stage and become the subject of substantial research as scientists work to evaluate whether flax seeds are truly as powerful as historical medicine has believed. The composition alone of flax seeds provides strong evidence in its favor; flax seeds contain substantial amounts of dietary fiber, lignans, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids.32 These compounds explain the wide array of purported benefits from eating flax seeds, which range from improved hormone balance to preventing cancer.30

*Note: Before reviewing the literature, it is important to note that many peer-reviewed studies may be biased due to industry-funded research to promote product sales, and a conflict of interest is not always disclosed (see information from biologist and nutritionist Marion Nestle on sponsored research here). As discussed in the Food as Medicine Report (page 158), there is a need for more government funding for food as medicine initiatives.   

Glossary of terms:

  • Alpha-linolenic acid: an essential fatty acid found in seeds and oils
  • Antioxidant: a substance that protects against damage from oxidizing agents in living beings
  • Atherosclerotic: relating to the buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances along the inside of arteries which causes thinning and damage.
  • Biomarkers: objective, consistent markers of cell, organ, or bodily function
  • Carcinogenic: having the potential to cause cancer
  • Cardiotoxic: cancer treatments that have a capacity to cause cardiovascular damage
  • Gut microbiome: the microorganisms that are housed within the gut of living beings
  • Hormone: a molecule produced within the body to induce specific actions within particular organs
  • Lignans: a group of polyphenols found within plant products, such as seeds, vegetables, and oils, that are precursors for phytoestrogens when consumed
  • Omega-3 fatty acids: polyunsaturated fatty acids found predominantly within fish oils
  • Phytoestrogen: a plant-derived compound that mimics the effects of estrogen within the body due to its similar structure

Gastrointestinal Health
Since their use in ancient medicine, flax seeds have been recognized for their gastrointestinal benefits. Their fiber, lignan polyphenol, and alpha-linolenic acid content make them a reliable treatment for constipation.33 However, new research suggests that flaxseed may have benefits for patients with a wide variety of gastrointestinal conditions, including irritable bowel syndrome34 and ulcerative colitis,35 but it is not yet conclusive.

  • Dietary Flaxseed and Flaxseed Oil Differentially Modulate Aspects of the Microbiota Gut-Brain Axis Male Mice (animal study): Livingston et al. 202336 used mouse models to investigate the ability of flaxseed to attenuate bacterially-induced inflammation. Their study found that ground flaxseed had a positive effect on gut microbiome diversity, systemic inflammation, and brain inflammation after a three week period, but this effect was not replicated by consumption of flaxseed oil. This preliminary study demonstrated a potential for ground flaxseed consumption to modulate the microbiota gut-brain axis, though it has not yet been supported by human studies.
  • (Poly)phenols in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Review (review): Hagan et al. 202134 investigated the potential therapeutic effect of polyphenols on inflammatory bowel conditions. Flax seeds contain polyphenols in the form of lignans; prior research suggests that polyphenols have “anti-inflammatory and cardio-protective effects.”34 While interventional research has demonstrated an impact of polyphenol consumption on quality of life in active irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients, there are inconsistent results with regards to polyphenol impact on specific markers of inflammation and capacity as a preventative measure.
  • Functional laxative foods: Concepts, trends, and health benefits (review): Tabrizi et al. 202037 evaluated existing evidence of the therapeutic capacity for foods (including flaxseed) on constipation. They found that so-called “laxative foods” like flaxseed and prunes are an effective preliminary treatment for constipation when coupled with ample fluid intake and consistent exercise. These laxative foods were proposed as a viable alternative to traditional over-the-counter laxative medications. 
  • Multiple Mechanisms of Flaxseed: Effectiveness in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (animal study): Palla et al. 202038 researched the pharmacological basis of flax seeds’ therapeutic value in treating inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In animals induced with IBD, they found that flaxseed oil was effective in reducing both mortality and colonic ulcers through a substantial anti-inflammatory effect on the bowels and improved lesion healing. Flaxseed oil demonstrated antispasmodic, anticholinergic, and bactericidal benefits as well; the researchers concluded that flaxseed showed promising preliminary results for treating IBD and should be researched and developed further for this use.
  • Effects of flaxseed and flaxseed oil supplement on serum levels of inflammatory markers, metabolic parameters and severity of disease in patients with ulcerative colitis (clinical trial): Morshedzadeh et al. 201935 studied the effects of flaxseed supplements on human patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) in an open-labeled randomized control trial; patients were administered either ground flaxseed, flaxseed oil, or a placebo. The researchers found significant changes in various concrete metrics, such as fecal calprotectin and TGF-β, for the ground flaxseed and flaxseed oil groups at the conclusion of the trial: Administration of flaxseed supplements led to a decrease in inflammatory markers, disease severity, and waist circumference for UC patients. The researchers believed the soluble fiber, alpha-linolenic acid, and lignans in the flax seeds contributed most to these health benefits.

Cardiovascular Health and Cholesterol
Cardiovascular benefits from flax seeds are a more recent discovery and are most likely closely tied to their impact on cholesterol and blood pressure.39 Substantial research has been conducted at the level of animal models, but human trials on the prophylactic effects of flaxseed consumption are still ongoing. Thus far, evidence from animal studies suggests that flax seeds and their components (namely alpha-linolenic acid and lignans) can positively impact many diseases, including peripheral artery disease, hypertension, atherosclerosis, arrhythmias, and ischemic heart diseases.40 Recent research suggests that flaxseed consumption may also have a protective effect against the cardiotoxic effects of certain medications, such as breast cancer treatments.40

  • Impact of α-Linolenic Acid, the Vegetable ω-3 Fatty Acid, on Cardiovascular Disease and Cognition (review): Sala-Vila et al. 202241 reviewed the existing literature on alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) – a notable component of flax seeds – and the support for its cardiovascular benefits. They found substantial evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of ALA consumption, with multiple clinical trials demonstrating its capacity to decrease total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood pressure and mitigate atherosclerotic cardiovascular conditions.
  • The Cardioprotective Role of Flaxseed in the Prevention of Cardiotoxicity in Mice (animal study): Asselin et al. 202042 used mouse models to study the capacity for dietary flaxseed to protect against cardiotoxicity caused by the breast cancer treatments doxorubicin and trastuzumab. They found that consumption of flax seeds could partially protect against the cardiovascular deterioration associated with these treatments. Mice consuming flax seeds, alpha-linolenic acid supplements, or lignan supplements all experienced a decrease in ventricular deterioration, inflammatory markers, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The researchers concluded that in animal models, flax consumption, alpha-linolenic acid supplementation, and lignan supplementation are all sufficient for partial protection against the cardiotoxicity of doxorubicin and trastuzumab.
  • Dietary flaxseed: what we know and don’t know about its effects on cardiovascular disease (review): Parikh & Pierce 201939 provided an overview of the current research on dietary flax seeds and their impact on cardiovascular conditions. They found evidence to support flax seeds having “anti-arrhythmic, anti-atherogenic, anti-hypertensive, and cholesterol-lowering actions,” but they noted that these effects have been most thoroughly studied in animal models and that more human trials need to be conducted to fully understand the utility of flaxseed products for human health.
  • Dietary flaxseed protects against ventricular arrhythmias and left ventricular dilation after a myocardial infarction (animal study): Parikh et al. 201943 studied the protective effects of flaxseed consumption against cardiovascular diseases that develop following heart attacks. Rats were fed flaxseed for two weeks prior to an artificially induced heart attack and for eight weeks after the heart attack. They found that consuming flaxseed prior to and following a heart attack may significantly decrease incidence of arrhythmias, ventricular dilation, and fibrosis of the heart muscle, suggesting that flaxseed can provide some protection against the lasting effects of heart attacks. Alpha-linolenic acid and lignans present in flaxseed are believed to be responsible for these benefits, but further research is needed to establish this.
  • Flaxseed: its bioactive components and their cardiovascular benefits (review): Parikh et al. 201844 discussed the specific components of flax seeds and their demonstrated cardiovascular benefits. The presence of alpha-linolenic acid and antioxidant lignans in flaxseed has attracted particular attention with researchers. These two components are responsible for the established cardiovascular benefits of flax seeds, as well as flax seeds’ high fiber content. However, the authors note that there are many other biologically active components of flax seeds, such as “proteins, cyclolinopeptides, and cyanogenic glycosides,” which have not yet been thoroughly studied. Among the benefits of flax seeds supported by current literature are “antihypertensive action, antiatherogenic effects, a lowering of cholesterol, an anti-inflammatory action, and an inhibition of arrhythmias.”

Diabetes and Blood Sugar
Thus far, there are mixed results in the literature on flax seeds’ impact on diabetes metrics such as insulin resistance and blood sugar. Animal models have suggested that flaxseeds can alter gut microbiota and reduce fasting glucose,45 which may mitigate symptoms of type 2 diabetes. However, human clinical trials46 have had mixed results, leading researchers to suggest that more large-scale research should be conducted before drawing conclusions. There is currently only preliminary literature on type 1 diabetes and flaxseed consumption.47

  • Flaxseed supplementation significantly reduces hemoglobin A1c in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (review): Xi et al. 202346 delved into the impact of flaxseed supplementation on cardiometabolic metrics for patients with type 2 diabetes. Using randomized controlled trials, they found that hemoglobin A1c was reduced by flaxseed consumption and cholesterol was significantly lowered, but body weight, BMI, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, and insulin resistance were not consistently impacted. Flaxseed supplementation was most effective in those with severe blood sugar dysregulation, but more research needs to be done to substantiate the less consistent results.
  • Effect of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) supplementation on glycemic control and insulin resistance in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes (review): Villarreal-Renteria et al. 202248 investigated whether flaxseed consumption could have a therapeutic effect on prediabetic and type 2 diabetes patients. In their literature review, they found that randomized control trials with human patients support consuming flax to lower insulin and fasting blood glucose levels, indicating that flaxseed may have therapeutic benefits for glycemic control and insulin resistance in prediabetic and type 2 diabetic patients.
  • Dietary flaxseed oil suppresses severity of type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats (animal study): Zhu et al. 202045 studied the effects of flaxseed oil consumption on diabetic rats. Compared to controls, diabetic rats consuming flaxseed oil for a period of five weeks experienced “significantly reduced fasting blood glucose (FBG), glycated hemoglobin (GHb), blood lipid, plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, IL-17A and malondialdehyde (MDA).” Scientists did not find significant differences in body weight or insulin resistance between treatment and control groups, but they did find that the gut microbiome of the treatment group was altered positively after the five-week period. The authors hypothesize that consumption of flaxseed oil may ameliorate type 2 diabetes by minimizing inflammation and altering the gut microbiome, though more research is needed with human subjects.
  • Effect of flaxseed or psyllium vs. placebo on management of constipation, weight, glycemia, and lipids (clinical trial): Soltanian & Janghorbani 201949 investigated the effects of flaxseed versus a placebo on type 2 diabetic patients with constipation. They found that administering flaxseed via baked goods for 12 weeks significantly reduced constipation symptoms and improved stool consistency, weight, BMI, fasting plasma glucose, and cholesterol, supporting flax seeds’ dual efficacy against constipation and diabetes.

Fighting Cancer
There is substantial evidence in both animal and human research for flax seeds’ beneficial effects in preventing and even treating cancers; it has been investigated in relation to ovarian cancer, colorectal cancer, and breast cancer.50 Research shows that this is more likely due to the seeds’ impact on inflammation and immune system activity,51 making them an emergent dietary tool to regulate cell growth and prevent carcinogenic processes.

  • Flaxseed Increases Animal Lifespan and Reduces Ovarian Cancer Severity (animal study): Weston et al. 202152 performed an animal study to evaluate the preventive effects of flaxseed in hens induced with ovarian cancer. They found that these hens showed less signs of aging, increased life span, decreased body mass, and improved liver function when consuming flaxseed. These results suggest that flaxseed consumption may have a protective effect against ovarian cancer in women, mainly through decreasing adiposity and improving liver function.
  • Flaxseed Lignans as Important Dietary Polyphenols for Cancer Prevention and Treatment: Chemistry, Pharmacokinetics, and Molecular Targets (review): Silva & Alcorn 201951 investigated the current literature on the relationship between polyphenol consumption and cancer prevention – there is extensive evidence showing the “anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory effects” of lignans in flaxseed. The current research suggests that lignans are a powerful dietary tool for cancer prevention and even cancer treatment. Future research should focus on combining flaxseed-based lignan consumption and chemotherapies to treat cancer.
  • Flaxseed Bioactive Compounds and Colorectal Cancer Prevention (review): DeLuca et al. 201853 reviewed the existing literature on flaxseed consumption and its potential protective effect against colorectal cancer. They found robust data that both flax seeds themselves and their independent components (fiber, lignans, and omega-3 fatty acids) had protective effects in animal and human studies – consumption of flaxseed products led to improved cell growth regulation and decreased colonic neoplasms, both of which decreased risk of developing colorectal cancer.
  • The Effect of Flaxseed in Breast Cancer (review): Calado et al. 201854 reviewed the existing research on flaxseed consumption and breast cancer, noting a variety of animal studies and human clinical trials. They found that lignans have an established antiestrogen activity, and alpha-linolenic acid has been shown to both reduce breast cancer risk and promote death of breast cancer cells. Human trials have supported the benefits of using flaxseed in combination with traditional cancer treatments, namely tamoxifen. Flaxseed consumption may also decrease breast cancer risk, particularly in postmenopausal women.

Inflammation and Metabolic Disorders
Flaxseed research has shown therapeutic value when it comes to inflammation both internally and externally. Application of flaxseed oil to wounds55 can improve healing and decrease inflammation, and ingestion of flaxseed oil and whole flax seeds can decrease internal biomarkers of inflammation.56 Researchers have not found consistent evidence  that flaxseed consumption impacts body composition.57

  • Effects of Flaxseed Oil and Olive Oil on Markers of Inflammation and Wound Healing in Burn Patients (clinical trial): Ghanbari et al. 202355 studied the utility of flaxseed oil and olive oil in healing human burn patients with substantial burn surface areas of 20 to 50 percent of their bodies. They found that applying a combination of olive oil and flaxseed oil to the skin led to decreased inflammation and improved wound healing.
  • The Effect of Flaxseed Oil Supplementation on Body Composition and Inflammation Indices in Overweight Adults With Pre-Diabetes (clinical trial): Shareghfarid et al. 202257 researched the impact of flaxseed oil consumption on adults who were overweight and have prediabetes. They found that consuming flaxseed oil for a 14-week period did significantly decrease visceral fat, but they did not find significant results for any of the other metrics of the study – overall body fat, skeletal muscle, fasting blood glucose, or C-reactive protein (a measure of inflammation). They concluded that flaxseed oil consumption cannot significantly alter body composition in prediabetic adults.
  • Effects of flaxseed oil supplementation on biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome and related disorders (review): Tamtaji et al. 202056 reviewed the current literature on the impact of flaxseed oil consumption on different biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress, focusing specifically on studies related to metabolic disorders. Studies consistently showed that flaxseed oil consumption improved three specific markers – interleukin 6, malondialdehyde, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). The researchers concluded that flaxseed oil consumption can substantially impact these specific biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress and that this impact may explain the positive effects of flaxseed oil consumption on metabolic disorder symptoms.
  • Effect of flaxseed supplementation on markers of inflammation and endothelial function (review): Askarpour et al. 202058 reviewed randomized controlled trials on flaxseed supplementation and inflammation and found that flaxseed consumption consistently improved levels of C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and vascular cell adhesion protein 1, but it had no effect on other inflammatory biomarkers. They concluded that flax seeds may have a capacity to improve certain inflammatory and adhesion biomarkers, but more research is needed to form conclusions about its comprehensive effect on inflammation in humans. 
  • Flaxseed Effects on Inflammation Regulatory Gene Expressions in an Obese Animal Model (animal study): Mann & Rhee 202159 used mouse models to study the effects of flaxseed consumption on low-grade obesity-induced inflammation. Flaxseed consumption in both oil and whole form significantly decreased biomarkers of inflammation after an eight-week period. The results are indicative of the impact of both alpha-linolenic acid and lignans in flaxseed’s capacity to alleviate obesity-induced inflammation.

Hormonal Health
Flaxseed supplementation has close ties to hormonal and reproductive health due to its high contents of lignan, which is a phytoestrogen. Dietary flaxseed has been investigated in relation to breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and polycystic ovary syndrome, as well as general reproductive and hormonal health.60 The research suggests that flaxseed consumption has a positive impact on hormonal regulation, potentially through its direct effect on the gut microbiome.61 These effects seem to be especially beneficial for postmenopausal women, as dietary flaxseed has demonstrated a capacity to supplement hormone replacement therapy62 in its ability to mimic estrogen.

  • The effects of flaxseed or its oil supplementations on polycystic ovary syndrome (review): Emamat et al. 202363 reviewed the current literature regarding polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and the preventative use of flaxseed supplementation. They found that supplementation with flax seeds or flaxseed oil was associated with improved “metabolic, hormonal, and anthropometric parameters in women with PCOS,” though they recommended further studies on the subject to fully substantiate this conclusion.
  • Influence of Flaxseed on Female Reproduction (review): Sirotkin 202360 investigated the connections between flaxseed consumption and female reproductive function and health. The author highlights the utility of two main flaxseed compounds – lignans and alpha-linolenic acid – and the research supporting their involvement in “ovarian growth, follicle development, the resulting puberty and reproductive cycles, ovarian cell proliferation and apoptosis, oo- and embryogenesis, hormonal regulators of reproductive processes and their dysfunctions.” He notes that flaxseed components most likely work through metabolic and hormone-driven pathways; in addition to general reproductive health, there is substantial research supporting how flaxseed consumption can have both preventative and therapeutic effects in both polycystic ovary syndrome and ovarian cancer.
  • Effect of flaxseed oil on biochemical parameters, hormonal indexes and stereological changes in ovariectomized rats (animal study): Tanideh et al. 202162 used animal models to assess the effects of flaxseed oil consumption on postmenopausal women. Adult female rats whose ovaries had been removed were used to approximate the biological state of a postmenopausal woman. Following eight weeks of flaxseed oil consumption, the rats’ hormone levels increased, and there was also a positive impact upon tissue healing. The authors noted that flaxseed oil may be a future alternative to hormone replacement therapy for postmenopausal women due to its ability to mimic the biological effects of estrogen based on current animal models and studies.
  • Dietary flaxseed and tamoxifen affect the inflammatory microenvironment in vivo in normal human breast tissue of postmenopausal women (clinical trial): Lindahl et al. 201964 studied the impact of flaxseed consumption on the environment surrounding breast cells of healthy postmenopausal women in comparison to that of tamoxifen, a traditional breast cancer treatment. The authors found that consuming ground flaxseed even in modest quantities (25g per day) significantly altered the breast microenvironment, though not in a way comparable to tamoxifen.
  • Dietary α-Linolenic Acid-Rich Flaxseed Oil Exerts Beneficial Effects on Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Through Sex Steroid Hormones-Microbiota-Inflammation Axis in Rats (animal study): Wang et al. 202061 studied the effect of flaxseed oil supplementation in animal models with induced polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS); after an eight-week period of consumption, they saw significant improvements in the appearance/shape of ovarian cells, hormone regulation, body weight, insulin resistance, and inflammation. The authors suggested that these improvements were achieved via flaxseed oil’s alteration of the gut and vaginal microbiomes.

Potential Negative Effects: 
Despite the numerous benefits of flaxseed consumption, there are a few pitfalls to watch out for. The main side effects of flaxseed consumption are gas, bloating, and diarrhea;65 these symptoms are common when individuals consume more fiber than their digestive system is used to accommodating. WebMD recommends increasing your flaxseed consumption in small steps – only add one teaspoon per day66 to your diet to minimize symptoms associated with rapid increases in dietary fiber. Make sure to consume extra water65 when adding fiber to your diet as well to minimize symptoms. It is recommended to consume no more than 5 tablespoons of flax seeds per day.

Mayo Clinic recommends avoiding flax seeds and flaxseed oil for two weeks prior to surgery65 due to their capacity to lower blood clotting; they also warn that there can be cases of allergic reactions to flaxseed consumption. Possible drugs that interact with flax seeds include: anti-coagulants, antiplatelets, blood pressure drugs, diabetes drugs, estrogen drugs, NSAIDS, cholesterol-lowering drugs,65 or breast cancer treatments that block estrogen.67 Flax seeds shouldn’t be consumed in close proximity to any orally administered medications68 as they can interfere with absorption of oral drugs. Insufficient research has been done on the impact of flaxseed and flaxseed oil consumption during pregnancy; it is not recommended to consume these products when pregnant or breastfeeding.3

Cooking tips/recipes: 
There are many easy ways to add flax seeds to your daily diet,69 such as putting them into smoothies, granola, or baked goods. Flax seeds can also be used as a unique egg substitute70 – mix flaxseed meal with water, allow it to thicken, and add it in place of eggs in any baking recipe. Ground flax seeds can also be used in place of breadcrumbs69 when making breadings or binding ingredients together. Flaxseed butter can be purchased or homemade71 and serves as a nutrient-packed alternative to other nut butters. Using large amounts of flaxseed in a recipe can result in a bitter taste,3 so it is recommended to slowly introduce it into your diet.

Flax seeds cannot be consumed raw or unripe; ground flaxseed, flaxseed butter, and other processed varieties will be safe to eat upon purchase without additional cooking, etc.3 Make sure to store flaxseed oil in the refrigerator3 to avoid spoilage. Flaxseed oil should not be directed heated,3 as it has a low smoke point and heat will further alter the nutritional value of the oil. While flaxseed oil is sold as a dietary supplement, note that it is not regulated by the FDA72 as a dietary supplement.

With so many ways to incorporate flaxseed into your diet, it is important to understand the nutritional value of its different forms. While quite convenient, flaxseed oil lacks many of the nutrients contained within whole or ground flax seeds. Ground flax seed67 is the best route of consumption for maximal bioavailability of nutrients, since whole flax seeds have a tough exterior that inhibits digestion. Everyday Health recommends buying flax seeds whole and grinding them at home67 to prevent the fats from oxidizing and changing the product’s taste; flax seeds can be ground using coffee grinders, blenders, or food processors. While whole flax seeds can be stored safely at room temperature, ground flaxseed should be stored in an airtight container in the refrigerator.67 

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References:

  1. NCCIH. Accessed August 23, 2023. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/flaxseed-and-flaxseed-oil
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5/5 - (1 vote)

Juliana Fox is a passionate researcher and science communicator. In 2022, she received her B.S. in molecular and cell biology from UCSD, and in 2023, she received her M.S. in Biology from UCSD. She also currently works as Research Assistant II in the Asahina lab at Salk, where she studies the neurological basis of social hierarchies in eusocial sweat bee species. She currently runs a science education account on Instagram (@shrewdscience) that aims to share biology with the public in an accessible way! In the future, she plans to progress to a neuroscience Ph.D. program and pursue a career in research and science communication!

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