Introduction
The word “gluten” has recently gained a negative connotation, and gluten-free diets have become somewhat trendy, even among mostly healthy individuals. Gluten is a protein found in products made with wheat, barley, or rye. Many people fear that gluten will cause gastrointestinal disorders, fatigue, weight gain, and other forms of inflammation. But, is it harmful to consume gluten as part of an otherwise healthful diet? Aside from those with celiac disease – an immune reaction to gluten consumption that causes severe intestinal problems – who else, if anyone, should be following a strictly gluten-free diet?
What is Gluten?
- What is gluten, which foods have lots, and how to tell if it is an intolerance vs. sensitivity (MedicalNewsToday – January 2, 2024)
- Gluten (Britannica – December 28, 2023)
- Foods High in Gluten (WebMD – October 23, 2023)
- Gluten-Free Foods List (EatingWell – September 15, 2023)
- What Is Gluten? (Everyday Health – July 28, 2023)
- What Is Gluten, Which Foods Include It, and How to Tell Celiac Disease vs. Sensitivity (VerywellHealth – June 27, 2023)
- What Exactly Is Gluten? Here’s Everything You Need to Know (Healthline – May 7, 2023)
- What Is Gluten? (Health – April 17, 2023)
- Gluten-free: What does that mean? (Mayo Clinic Health System – May 6, 2022)
- Ditch the gluten, improve your health? (Harvard Health Publishing – April 14, 2022)
- What is gluten? (Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology – March 2017)
- Gluten: A Benefit or Harm to the Body? (Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health)
- Gluten-free diet (Mayo Clinic)
- Gluten-Free Diet: Is It Right for Me? (Johns Hopkins Medicine)
- Gluten Intolerance (Cleveland Clinic)
- What Is Gluten? (Beyond Celiac)
- What Is Gluten and What Does It Do? (Johns Hopkins Medicine)
Risks and Benefits of a Gluten-Free Diet
- Gluten-Associated Medical Problems (National Institutes of Health – October 31, 2022)
- Gluten: do only celiac patients benefit from its removal from the diet? (Food Reviews International – January 28, 2022)
- The Gluten-Free Diet for Celiac Disease and Beyond (Nutrients – November 9, 2021)
- Wheat/Gluten-Related Disorders and Gluten-Free Diet Misconceptions: A Review (Foods – July 30, 2021)
- Multidimensional Disadvantages of a Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease: A Narrative Review (Nutrients – February 16, 2021)
- Non-celiac wheat sensitivity: rationality and irrationality of a gluten-free diet in individuals affected with non-celiac disease: a review (BMC Gastroenterology – January 6, 2021)
- Gluten Free Diet for the Management of Non Celiac Diseases: The Two Sides of the Coin (Healthcare – October 14, 2020)
- Navigating the Gluten-Free Boom: The Dark Side of Gluten Free Diet (Frontiers in Pediatrics – October 15, 2019)
- Gluten-related disorders: Celiac disease, wheat allergy, and nonceliac gluten sensitivity (Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition – August 12, 2019)
- Going Against the Grains: Gluten-Free Diets in Patients Without Celiac Disease—Worthwhile or Not? (Digestive Diseases and Sciences – May 17, 2019)
- Long term effects of gluten-free diet in non-celiac wheat sensitivity (Clinical Nutrition – February 2019)
- Gluten-Free Diet: Gaps and Needs for a Healthier Diet (Nutrients – January 15, 2019)
- A Gluten-Free Diet, Not an Appropriate Choice without a Medical Diagnosis (Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism – 2019)
- A Review on the Gluten-Free Diet: Technological and Nutritional Challenges (Nutrients – October 2, 2018)
- Consumption of gluten free products increases heavy metal intake (NFS Journal – August 2018)
- Accumulation of Heavy Metals in People on a Gluten-Free Diet (Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology – February 2018)
- Another Reason to Avoid the Gluten-Free Fad? (Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology – February 2018)
- Health Benefits and Adverse Effects of a Gluten-Free Diet in Non–Celiac Disease Patients (Gastroenterology and Hepatology – February 2018)
- The Demonization of Gluten (Freakonomics Radio – October 18, 2017)
- Celiac, Non-Celiac Gluten-Sensitivity, Gluten-Free Diets (American College of Gastroenterology)
- Learn about gluten-free diets (MedlinePlus)
Cardiovascular Disease Risk
- Celiac Disease and Cardiovascular Risk: A Retrospective Case-Control Study (Journal of Clinical Medicine – February 14, 2023)
- Celiac Disease May Increase Risk of Heart Attack and Stroke, Study Finds (Everyday Health – January 31, 2023)
- People with celiac disease may be at higher risk of cardiovascular disease even with fewer known risk factors (News Medical Life Sciences – January 31, 2023)
- Is There a Higher Risk of Heart Disease When You Have Celiac? (Verywell Health – July 19, 2022)
- Effects of a gluten‐reduced or gluten‐free diet for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews – February 24, 2022)
- Effect of the gluten-free diet on cardiovascular risk factors in patients with coeliac disease: A systematic review (Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology – November 4, 2017)
- Going gluten-free? There may be a downside to skipping heart-healthy grains (Harvard Health Publishing – September 1, 2017)
- Study Finds A Gluten-Free Diet in Adults Without Celiac Disease May Increase Risk of Cardiovascular Disease (Celiac Disease Foundation – May 4, 2017)
Celiac Disease
- What to know about celiac disease (MedicalNewsToday – November 10, 2023)
- Challenges of Monitoring the Gluten-Free Diet Adherence in the Management and Follow-Up of Patients with Celiac Disease (Nutrients – June 30, 2021)
- Effect of Gluten-Free Diet on Gut Microbiota Composition in Patients with Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten/Wheat Sensitivity (Nutrients – June 17, 2020)
- Pathogenesis of Celiac Disease and Other Gluten Related Disorders in Wheat and Strategies for Mitigating Them (Frontiers in Nutrition – February 7, 2020)
- Gluten intake and risk of celiac disease: Long-term follow-up of an at-risk birth cohort (American Journal of Gastroenterology – August 2019)
- Celiac disease: a comprehensive current review (BMC Medicine – July 23, 2019)
- Nutritional Deficiencies in Children with Celiac Disease Resulting from a Gluten-Free Diet: A Systematic Review (Nutrients – July 13, 2019)
- Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease—Forever and for All? (Nutrients – November 18, 2018)
- A Comprehensive Review of Celiac Disease/Gluten-Sensitive Enteropathies (Clinical Reviews in Allergy and Immunology – June 2, 2018)
- Hypervigilance to a Gluten-Free Diet and Decreased Quality of Life in Teenagers and Adults with Celiac Disease (Digestive Disease and Sciences – January 31, 2018)
- Celiac Disease Symptom Resolution: Effectiveness of the Gluten-free Diet (Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition – January 2018)
- Celiac disease (Mayo Clinic)
Non-celiac Gluten Sensitivity/Gluten Intolerance
- What Makes Gluten Intolerance Different From Celiac Disease? (Verywell Health – November 8, 2023)
- Nonceliac gluten sensitivity (Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care – September 2023)
- The Most Common Signs of Gluten Intolerance (Healthline – August 14, 2023)
- Is Gluten Sensitivity a Real Condition? (Columbia Doctors – May 31, 2023)
- Celiac Disease vs. Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity vs. Food Allergy (Cleveland Clinic – August 30, 2022)
- Causes and Risk Factors of Gluten Sensitivity (Verywell Health – September 30, 2021)
- Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity: An Update (Medicina – June 2021)
- Non-celiac wheat sensitivity: rationality and irrationality of a gluten-free diet in individuals affected with non-celiac disease: a review (BMC Gastroenterology – January 6, 2021)
- Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity: A Challenging Diagnosis in Children with Abdominal Pain (Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism – February 2019)
- Exposure to Different Amounts of Dietary Gluten in Patients with Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS): An Exploratory Study (Nutrients – January 10, 2019)
- Motility Disorders in Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity: The Impact of a Gluten-Free Diet (Nutrients – November 7, 2018)
Non-celiac gluten or wheat sensitivity: It’s complicated! (Neurogastroenterology and Motility – July 19, 2018) - Recent advances in understanding non-celiac gluten sensitivity (F1000 Research – 2018)
- The Strange World of Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (Mayo Clinic – April 24, 2017)
- Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (Harvard Health Publishing – December 28, 2014)
- Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity: The New Frontier of Gluten Related Disorders (Nutrients – September 26, 2013)
- Gluten Intolerance (Cleveland Clinic)
- Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center)
- Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity Shows Distinct Immune Response (Celiac Disease Foundation)
- Non-Celiac Gluten/Wheat Sensitivity (Celiac Disease Foundation)
- Symptoms of Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (Beyond Celiac)
Auto-immune disorders
- Gluten-free diet can ameliorate the symptoms of non-celiac autoimmune diseases (Nutrition Reviews – March 2022)
- Chapter 32 – Gluten and Autoimmunogenesis (Mosaic of Autoimmunity – 2019)
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD – e.g. ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease)
- Effects of Gluten Free Diet in Ulcerative Colitis (Clinical Trials – February 13, 2024)
- Can the Gluten-Free Diet Help Treat Your Crohn’s Disease or Colitis? (Verywell Health – December 21, 2023)
- Should You Go Gluten Free if You Have Ulcerative Colitis? (Everyday Health – October 9, 2023)
- The Role of Gluten in Gastrointestinal Disorders: A Review (Nutrients – March 27, 2023)
- Gluten Degradation by the Gut Microbiota of Ulcerative Colitis Patients (Microorganisms – December 21, 2022)
- Gluten-free diet for ulcerative colitis (UC): What to know (MedicalNewsToday – April 22, 2022)
- Positive Gluten Sensitivity Serologies and the Impact of Gluten-free Diet in Patients With IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Diseases – March 11, 2022)
- Dietary Gluten Intake Is Not Associated With Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in US Adults Without Celiac Disease (Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology – February 2022)
- Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity and Irritable Bowel Disease: Looking for the Culprits (Current Developments in Nutrition – December 2020)
- Association Between Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and Celiac Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (Gastroenterology – September 2020)
- Gluten-Free Diet in IBD: Time for a Recommendation? (Molecular Nutrition and Food Research – June 19, 2020)
- The Gluten-Free Diet: Use in Digestive Disease Management (Current Treatment Options in Gastroenterology – November 9, 2019)
- Vegetarian or gluten-free diets in patients with inflammatory bowel disease are associated with lower psychological well-being and a different gut microbiota, but no beneficial effects on the course of the disease (United European Gastroenterology Journal – March 27, 2019)
- Gluten-Free Living: Gluten, Crohn’s and Ulcerative Colitis (Cedars Sinai – March 15, 2019)
- Wheat gluten intake increases the severity of experimental colitis and bacterial translocation by weakening of the proteins of the junctional complex (British Journal of Nutrition – December 17, 2018)
- Gluten-Free Diet and Its ‘Cousins’ in Irritable Bowel Syndrome (Nutrients – November 11, 2018)
- Prevalence and factors associated with gluten sensitivity in inflammatory bowel disease (Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology – December 7, 2017)
- Prevalence of a Gluten-free Diet and Improvement of Clinical Symptoms in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (Inflammatory Bowel Diseases – July 1, 2014)
Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
- Evaluation of the effect of gluten-free diet and Mediterranean diet on autoimmune system in patients with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (Food Science and Nutrition – November 20, 2023)
- Effect of gluten-free diet on autoimmune thyroiditis progression in patients with no symptoms or histology of celiac disease: a meta-analysis (Frontiers in Endocrinology – July 23, 2023)
- Myths About Diet and Your Thyroid (Northwestern Medicine – March 2023)
- Should Hashimoto’s Thyroid Patients Avoid Gluten? (MedicineNet – February 1, 2023)
- Does a gluten-free diet affect the course of Hashimoto’s disease? – the review of the literature (Journal of Education, Health and Sport – November 30, 2022)
- Doubtful Justification of the Gluten-Free Diet in the Course of Hashimoto’s Disease (Nutrients – April 21, 2022)
- What about TSH and Anti-Thyroid Antibodies in Patients with Autoimmune Thyroiditis and Celiac Disease Using a Gluten-Free Diet? A Systematic Review (Nutrients – April 18, 2022)
- Is Gluten Safe to Eat If You Have Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis? (Healthline – September 23, 2021)
- Whether a Gluten-Free Diet Should Be Recommended in Chronic Autoimmune Thyroiditis or Not?—A 12-Month Follow-Up (Journal of Clinical Medicine – July 22, 2021)
- The importance of gluten exclusion in the management of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine – April 2021)
- Gluten intolerance and hashimoto thyroiditis: an integrated review (International Journal of Nutrology – 2021)
- Gluten and Autoimmune Thyroiditis (HealthCentral – July 4, 2020)
- Can a Gluten Free Diet Help with Thyroid Disease? (Scientific American – October 7, 2017)
Arthritis
- Should You Go Gluten-Free for Your Psoriatic Arthritis? (Everyday Health – February 15, 2024)
- How Are Psoriatic Arthritis and Gluten Connected? (Healthline – January 25, 2024)
- Is a Gluten-Free Diet Helpful for Managing Rheumatoid Arthritis Symptoms? (Everyday Health – December 31, 2023)
- What is the link between gluten and rheumatoid arthritis? (MedicalNewsToday – May 23, 2023)
- Evaluation of Gluten Exclusion for the Improvement of Rheumatoid Arthritis in Adults (Nutrients – December 19, 2022)
- Arthritis and Gluten: What’s the Connection? (Healthline – August 18, 2021)
- Efficacy of gluten-free diet in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (Reumatismo – The Italiam Journal of Rheumatology – January 18, 2021)
- What is the link between psoriatic arthritis and gluten? (MedicalNewsToday – September 25, 2018)
- Role of Diet in Influencing Rheumatoid Arthritis Disease Activity (Open Rheumatology Journal – February 8, 2018)
- The Connection Between Gluten and Arthritis (Arthritis Foundation)
Type 1 Diabetes
- The Link Between Celiac Disease and Type 1 Diabetes (JDRF – May 15, 2023)
- The impact of gluten-free diet on growth, metabolic control and quality of life in youth with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease: A systematic review (Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice – September 2022)
- Impact of a Gluten-Free Diet on Quality of Life and Health Perception in Patients With Type 1 Diabetes and Asymptomatic Celiac Disease (The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism – February 1, 2021)
- Maternal and child gluten intake and association with type 1 diabetes: The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (PLOS Medicine – March 2, 2020)
- Gluten-free diet in children with recent-onset type 1 diabetes: A 12-month intervention trial (Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism – January 27, 2020)
- Are gluten free diets good for diabetes? (MedicalNewsToday – August 31, 2019)
- Association of Cereal, Gluten, and Dietary Fiber Intake With Islet Autoimmunity and Type 1 Diabetes (JAMA Pediatrics – August 12, 2019)
- Gluten Intake and Risk of Islet Autoimmunity and Progression to Type 1 Diabetes in Children at Increased Risk of the Disease: The Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY) (Diabetes Care – February 22, 2019)
- Possible Prevention of Diabetes with a Gluten-Free Diet (Nutrients – November 13, 2018)
- Association between maternal gluten intake and type 1 diabetes in offspring: national prospective cohort study in Denmark (BMJ – September 19, 2018)
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
- Avoiding wheat could lessen inflammation and alleviate MS symptoms (MedicalNewsToday – January 30, 2024)
- Dairy and gluten in disease activity in multiple sclerosis (Multiple Sclerosis Journal – December 19, 2023)
- 4 Myths About Multiple Sclerosis and Diet (Everyday Health – August 22, 2023)
- Gluten intolerance antibodies in multiple sclerosis and clinically isolated syndrome : Coexistent or coincidental? (Clinical and Experimental Neuroimmunology – March 7, 2021)
- The role of gluten in multiple sclerosis: A systematic review (Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders – January 2019)
- Gluten-free Diet and MS (Multiple Sclerosis News Today)
Psoriasis
- What’s the Relationship Between Gluten and Psoriasis? (Healthline – January 30, 2024)
- Is a Gluten-Free Diet Better for Psoriasis? (HealthCentral – February 13, 2023)
- The Link Between Gluten and Psoriasis (Verywell Health – August 9, 2022)
- Gluten intake and risk of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and atopic dermatitis among United States women (Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology – March 2020)
- Can a gluten-free diet help with psoriasis? (MedicalNewsToday – June 18, 2019)
Autism Spectrum Disorders
- Gluten-Free and Casein-Free Diet for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: a Systematic Review (Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders – July 8, 2022)
- A Narrative Review about Autism Spectrum Disorders and Exclusion of Gluten and Casein from the Diet (Nutrients – April 25, 2022)
- Efficacy and Safety of Diet Therapies in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis (Frontiers in Neurology – March 13, 2022)
- A systematic review and meta-analysis of the benefits of a gluten-free diet and/or casein-free diet for children with autism spectrum disorder (Nutrition Reviews – October 7, 2021)
- Gluten and Autism Spectrum Disorder (Nutrients – February 9, 2021)
- Gluten-Free Casein-Free Diet for Autism Spectrum Disorders: Can It Be Effective in Solving Behavioural and Gastrointestinal Problems? (The Eurasian Journal of Medicine – October 2020)
- The Role of Gluten in Autism (Personalized Food Intervention and Therapy for Autism Spectrum Disorder Management – February 1, 2020)
- Gluten-Free Diet in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized, Controlled, Single-Blinded Trial (Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders – October 28, 2019)
- The prevalence of gluten free diet use among preschool children with autism spectrum disorder (Autism Research – November 20, 2017)
- Gluten- and casein-free diet and autism spectrum disorders in children: a systematic review (European Journal of Nutrition – June 13, 2017)
- Nutritional management of (some) autism: a case for gluten- and casein-free diets? (Proceedings of the Nutrition Society – October 14, 2014)